This Volume of the IARC Monographs provides an evaluation of the carcinogenic hazards associated with exposure to electromagnetic radiation in the radiofrequency range (30 kHz to 300 GHz). Human exposures to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields can occur from use of personal devices (e.g. mobile telephones, cordless phones, Bluetooth, and amateur radios), from occupational sources (e.g. high-frequency dielectric and induction heaters, high-powered pulsed radars), and from environmental sources (e.g. mobile-phone base stations, broadcast antennae, and medical applications). The general population receives the highest exposure from transmitters close to the body, including hand-held devices such as mobile telephones. Typical exposures to the brain from mobile-phone base stations and from television and radio stations are several orders of magnitude lower than those from second-generation GSM handsets, while 3G phones emit, on average, about 100 times less radiofrequency energy than GSM phones. Similarly, the average output power of Bluetooth wireless hands-free kits is estimated to be around 100 times less than that of mobile phones. An IARC Monographs Working Group reviewed epidemiological evidence, cancer bioassays, and mechanistic and other relevant data to reach conclusions as to the carcinogenic hazard to humans from exposure to these electromagnetic fields. With ”limited evidence” for carcinogenicity in humans based on an increased risk of glioma – a malignant brain tumour – among heavy users of mobile telephones, radiofrequency electromagnetic fields were classified as “possibly carcinogenic to humans” (Group 2B).

Contents

• NOTE TO THE READER
• List of Participants
  • Members
  • Invited Specialists
  • Representatives
  • Observers
  • IARC Secretariat
  • Post-meeting Assistance
  • Administrative Assistance
  • Production Team
• PREAMBLE
  • A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
  • B. SCIENTIFIC REVIEW AND EVALUATION
  • References
• General remarks
  • General Remarks
  • References
• 1. Exposure Data
  • 1.1. Introduction
  • 1.2. Sources of exposure
  • 1.3. Dosimetry
  • 1.4. Measurement techniques
  • 1.5. Interaction of RF-EMF with biological systems
  • 1.6. Exposure to RF radiation
  • 1.7. Exposure guidelines and standards
  • References
• 2. Cancer in Humans
  • 2.1. Occupational exposure
  • 2.2. Environmental exposure from fixed-site transmitters
  • 2.3. Exposure from mobile phones
  • References
• 3. Cancer in Experimental Animals
  • 3.1. Studies of carcinogenicity
  • 3.2. Initiation–promotion studies
  • 3.3. Co-carcinogenesis
  • References
• 4. Other Relevant Data
  • 4.1. Genetic and related effects
  • 4.2. Effects of low-level exposure to RF radiation on the immune system
  • 4.3. Effects of exposure to RF radiation on gene and protein expression
  • 4.4. Other relevant effects
  • 4.5. Physical factors that affect interpretation of study results
  • References
• 5. Summary of Data Reported
  • 5.1. Exposure Data
  • 5.2. Human carcinogenicity data
  • 5.3. Animal carcinogenicity data
  • 5.4. Other relevant data
• 6. Evaluation
  • 6.1. Cancer in Humans
  • 6.2. Cancer in Experimental Animals
  • 6.3. Overall Evaluation
  • 6.4. Rationale of the evaluation of the epidemiological evidence
• Glossary
• LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Corrigenda to the IARC Monographs are published online at http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Publications/corrigenda.php.

Corrigenda to Volume 102. (PDF, 73K)

This publication represents the views and expert opinions of an IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, which met in Lyon, 24-31 May 2011

Lyon, France - 2013

IARC MONOGRAPHS

In 1969, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) initiated a programme on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans involving the production of critically evaluated monographs on individual chemicals. The programme was subsequently expanded to include evaluations of carcinogenic risks associated with exposures to complex mixtures, lifestyle factors and biological and physical agents, as well as those in specific occupations. The objective of the programme is to elaborate and publish in the form of monographs critical reviews of data on carcinogenicity for agents to which humans are known to be exposed and on specific exposure situations; to evaluate these data in terms of human risk with the help of international working groups of experts in chemical carcinogenesis and related fields; and to indicate where additional research efforts are needed. The lists of IARC evaluations are regularly updated and are available on the Internet at http://monographs.iarc.fr/.

This programme has been supported since 1982 by Cooperative Agreement U01 CA33193 with the United States National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services. Additional support has been provided since 1986 by the Health, Safety and Hygiene at Work Unit of the European Commission Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, and since 1992 by the United States National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Department of Health and Human Services. The contents of this volume are solely the responsibility of the Working Group and do not necessarily represent the official views of the U.S. National Cancer Institute, the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or the European Commission Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities.

This volume was made possible, in part, through Cooperative Agreement CR 834012 with the United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. The contents of this volume do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

• Published by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, 150 cours Albert Thomas, 69372 Lyon Cedex 08, France ©International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2013
• Distributed by WHO Press, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel.: +41 22 791 3264; fax: +41 22 791 4857; e-mail: tni.ohw@sredrokoob).
• Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved.

The International Agency for Research on Cancer welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Requests for permission to reproduce or translate IARC publications – whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution – should be addressed to WHO Press, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806; email: tni.ohw@snoissimrep).

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters.

The IARC Monographs Working Group alone is responsible for the views expressed in this publication.